Emotion Dysregulation Linked to Depression Symptoms in a Sub-Saharan Sample of Adolescent University Students
Keywords:
Adolescence, Depression, Emotions, Emotion RegulationAbstract
Emotions are fundamental to human development and survival across the lifespan. Adolescence is a volatile and critical developmental period characterized by frequent high-intensity positive and negative emotions. Emotion dysregulation and depression symptoms are common occurrences in adolescence. This study explored the association between emotion regulation difficulties and depressive symptoms in adolescents. The study was anchored on the extended process model of emotion regulation. The study employed a descriptive-analytical design and sampled 352 adolescents, ages 18-19, from the United States International University-Africa, Kenya. SPSS® v28 was used to analyze data and apply descriptive and inferential statistics. The study found no gender or ethnic differences in emotion regulation. However, there was a significant association between emotion regulation difficulties and depression, χ2 (3) = 12.133, p = 0.007, V = 0.186, and a positive and significant linear relationship between the variables, r (352) = 0.229, p < 0.001, r2 = 0.052. Notably, the higher the emotion regulation difficulties, the higher the depression levels. The study concluded that emotionally dysregulated adolescent university students are particularly vulnerable to developing psychological symptoms of depression.
References
Abubakar, A., Kalu, R. B., Katana, K., Kabunda, B., Hassan, A. S., Newton, C. R., & Van de Vijver, F. (2016). Adaptation and latent structure of the Swahili version of beck depression inventory-II in a Low Literacy Population in the Context of HIV. PLOS ONE, 11(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151030
Aldao, A. (2013). The future of emotion regulation research. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(2), 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612459518
Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(2), 217–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004
Aldao, A., Sheppes, G., & Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation flexibility. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 39(3), 263–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-014-9662-4
American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. Arlington, VA.
Amone-P’Olak, K., Boitumelo, V., & Mberengwa, D. S. (2017). Cognitive emotion regulation strategies and mental health problems in war-affected youth in Northern Uganda: findings from the WAYS study. Journal of Mental Health, 28(2), 1-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2017.1385745
Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C., Perry, B. D., Dube, S.R. Giles., W. H. (2005). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256(3), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4
Bailen, N. H., Green, L. M., & Thompson, R. J. (2019). Understanding emotion in adolescents: A review of emotional frequency, intensity, instability, and clarity. Emotion Review, 11(1), 63-73. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073918768878
Bantjes, J., Lochner, C., Saal, W., Roos, J., Taljaard, L., Page, D., Auerbach, R.P., Mortier, P., Bruffaerts, R., Kessler, R.C., & Stein, D.J. (2019). Prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of common mental disorders among first-year university students in post-apartheid South Africa: implications for a public mental health approach to student wellness. BMC Public Health, 19(1), 1-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7218-y.
Basnight-Brown, D.M., Ayoob, A., and Altarriba, J. (2022). Emotion processing in a highly proficient multilingual Sub-Saharan African population: A quantitative and qualitative investigation. Languages, 7(280). https://doi.org/10.3390/languages7040280
Chaplin, T. M., & Aldao, A. (2013). Gender differences in emotion expression in children: a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin. 139, 735–765. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030737
Chang, C., Kaczkurkin, A. N., McLean, C. P., & Foa, E. B. (2018). Emotion regulation is associated with PTSD and depression among female adolescent survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10(3), 319–326. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000306
Choi, S. W., Schalet, B., Cook, K. F., & Cella, D. (2014). Establishing a common metric for depressive symptoms: Linking the BDI-II, CES-D, and PHQ-9 to PROMIS depression. Psychological Assessment, 26(2), 513–527. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035768
Cicchetti, D., Ganiban, J., & Barnett, D. (1991). Contributions from the study of high risk populations to understanding the development of emotion regulation. In J. Garber & K.A. Dodge (Eds.), The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation. (pp. 15–48). Cambridge University Press.
Colmenero-Navarrete, L., García-Sancho, E., & Salguero, J. M. (2021). Relationship between emotion regulation and suicide ideation and attempt in adults and adolescents: a systematic review. Archives of Suicide Research, 1-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2021.1999872
Cracco, E., Goossens, L., & Brae, C. (2017). Emotion regulation across childhood and adolescence: Evidence for a maladaptive shift in adolescence. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 909-921. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-017-0952-8
Dodge, K. A. (1991a). Emotion and social information processing. In J. Garber & K. A. Dodge (Eds.), The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation (pp. 159–181). Cambridge University Press.
Erskine, H. E., Baxter, A. J., Patton, G., Moffitt, T. E., Patel, V., Whiteford, H. A., & Scott, J. G. (2016). The global coverage of prevalence data for mental disorders in children and adolescents. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 26(04), 395–402. https://doi.org/10.1017/s2045796015001158
Etkin, A., Büchel, C., & Gross, J. J. (2015). The neural bases of emotion regulation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16(11), 693–700. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn4044
Fernandez, K. C., Jazaieri, H., & Gross, J. J. (2016). Emotion regulation: A transdiagnostic perspective on a new RDoC domain. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 40, 426-440.
Gaitho, D., Kumar, M., Wamalwa, D., Wambua, G. N., & Nduati, R. (2018). Understanding mental health difficulties and associated psychosocial outcomes in adolescents in the HIV clinic at Kenyatta National Hospital, Kenya. Annals of General Psychiatry, 17(29), 11-121. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12991-018-0200-8
Gratz, K. L., & Tull, M. T. (2022). A clinically useful conceptualization of emotion regulation grounded in functional contextualism and evolutionary theory. World Psychiatry, 21(3), 460. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.21021
Gross, J.J. (2013). Emotion regulation: Taking stock and moving forward. Emotion, 13(3), 359-65. Https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032135
Gross, J. J. (2015a). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781
Gross, J. J. (1998b). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348
Gyurak, A., Gross, J. J., & Etkin, A. (2011). Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: A dual-process framework. Cognition & Emotion, 25(3), 400-412. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2010.544160
Izard, C. E. (1977). Human Emotions. Plenum Press.
John, O.P., & Eng, J. (2014). Three approaches to individual differences in affect regulation: Conceptualizations, measures and findings. In J.J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 321–345). The Guildford Press.
John, O. P., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Individual differences in emotion regulation. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 351–372). The Guilford Press.
Katz, L. F., & Gottman, J. M. (1991). Marital discord and child outcomes: A social psychophysiological approach. In J. Garber & K. A. Dodge (Eds.), The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation (pp. 129-155). Cambridge University Press.
Karimi, J. W., Kwena, J. A., & Anika, A. (2020). Emotional intelligence and academic achievement among secondary school students in Kilifi County, Kenya: A Correlational Study. Journal of Research Innovation and Implications in Education, 4(2), 32-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.07.095
Katembu, S.M. (2023). Differential relationships of childhood trauma and violent behavior in adolescents with cognitive-emotional deficits. [Doctoral dissertation, Humboldt University]. Edoc Server. https://edoc.hu-berlin.de/handle/18452/27331
Kleemans M., Daalmans S., Carbaat I., & Anschütz D. (2016). Picture perfect: the direct effect of manipulated Instagram photos on body image in adolescent girls. Media Psychology, 21(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2016.1257392
Kumar, R. (2018). Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners (5th ed.). Sage.
Kumar, M., Huang, K. Y., Othieno, C., Wamalwa, D., Hoagwood, K., Unutzer, J., Saxena, S., Petersen, I., Njuguna, S., Amugune, B., Gachuno, O., Ssewamala, F., & McKay, M. (2020). Implementing combined WHO mhGAP and adapted group interpersonal psychotherapy to address depression and mental health needs of pregnant adolescents in Kenyan primary health care settings (INSPIRE): A study protocol for pilot feasibility trial of the integrated intervention in LMIC settings. Pilot and Feasibility Studies, 6(1), 1-18.https://doi.org/10.1186/s40814-020-00652-8
Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Progress on a cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion. American Psychologist, 46(8), 819. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.46.8.819
Lee, F. S., Heimer, H., Giedd, J. N., Lein, E. S., Šestan, N., Weinberger, D. R., & Casey, B. (2014). Adolescent mental health - opportunity and obligation. Science, 346(6209), 547- 549. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1260497
Luseno, W. K., Field, S. H., Iritani, B. J., Odongo, F. S., Kwaro, D., Amek, N. O., & Rennie, S. (2021). Pathways to depression and poor quality of life among adolescents in Western Kenya: role of anticipated HIV stigma, HIV risk perception, and sexual behaviors. AIDS and Behavior, 25(5), 1423-1437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-020-02980-5
Mbungu, T. M., Nyaga, V. K., & Kinyua, S. M. (2019). Relationship between parenting practices and emotional regulation of students in public secondary schools in Tharaka Nithi County, Kenya. International Journal of Education and Research, 7(8), 183-194. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2019.04.001
Mullen S. (2018). Major depressive disorder in children and adolescents. The Mental Health Clinician, 8(6), 275–283. https://doi.org/10.9740/mhc.2018.11.275
Muiga, J.W. (2020). Emotional intelligence and academic self-efficacy beliefs as predictors of academic achievement among form four students in Kiambu County, Kenya. [Doctoral Dissertation, Kenyatta University]. Kenyatta University Institutional Repository. http://ir-library.ku.ac.ke/handle/123456789/21754
Nesi, J., & Prinstein, M. J. (2015). Using social media for social comparison and feedback-seeking: Gender and popularity moderate associations with depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(8), 1427–1438. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0020-0
Nicholson, L. R., Lewis, R., Thomas, K. G., & Lipinska, G. (2021). Influence of poor emotion regulation on disrupted sleep and subsequent psychiatric symptoms in university students. South African Journal of Psychology, 51(1), 6–20. https://doi.org 10.1177/0081246320978527
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Aldao, A. (2011). Gender and age differences in emotion regulation strategies and their relationship to depressive symptoms. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(6), 704–708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.06.012
Nyayieka, M. A., Nyagwencha, S. K., & Nzyuko, S. (2020). Correlation of clinical depression, anxiety and academic performance of adolescents in selected secondary schools in Kenya. American Journal of Applied Psychology, 9(1), 14-21. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajap.20200901.13
Nyundo, A., Manu, A., Regan, M., Ismail, A., Chukwu, A., Dessie, Y., Njau, T., Kaaya, S.F., & Fawzi, M.C.S. (2020). Factors associated with depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation and behaviours amongst sub-Saharan African adolescents aged 10–19 years: Cross-sectional study. Tropical Medicine and International Health. 25(1), 54–69. https://doi.org/10.1111/tmi.13336
Okello, L.M., & Aomo, J.A. (2018). Relationship between emotional intelligence and suicidal behavior among secondary school students in Kitutu Central Sub-County, Kisii County, Kenya. International Journal of Educational Policy Research and Review, 5(7), 109-116. https://doi.org/10.15739/IJEPRR.18.013
Osborn, T. L., Venturo-Conerly, K. E., Gan, J. Y., Rodriguez, M., Alemu, R. G., Roe, E., Arango, S. G., Wasil, A. R., Campbell, S., Weisz, J. R., & Wasanga, C. M. (2022). Depression and anxiety symptoms amongst Kenyan adolescents: Psychometric properties, prevalence rates and associations with psychosocial wellbeing and sociodemographic factors. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 50(11), 1471–1485. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-022-00940-2
Osborn, T. L., Wasil, A. R., Venturo-Conerly, K. E., Schleider, J. L., & Weisz, J. R. (2020). Group intervention for adolescent anxiety and depression: Outcomes of a randomized trial with adolescents in Kenya. Behavior Therapy, 51(4), 601–615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2019.09.005
Panksepp, J. (2006). The core emotional systems of the mammalian brain: The fundamental substrates of human emotions. In About a body (pp. 14-32). Routledge.
Riediger, M., & Klipker, K. (2014). Emotion regulation in adolescence. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 187–202). The Guilford Press.
Sanchis-Sanchis, A., Grau, M. D., Moliner, A.-R., & Morales-Murillo, C. P. (2020). Effects of age and gender in emotion regulation of children and adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 946. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00946
Santiago-Rivera, A. L., Altarriba, J., Poll, N., Gonzalez-Miller, N., & Cragun, C. (2009). Therapists’ views on working with bilingual Spanish–English speaking clients: A qualitative investigation. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 40(5), 436–443. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015933
Salovey, P., Mayer, J. D., Golman, S. L., Turvey, C., & Palfai, T. P. (1995). Emotional attention, clarity, and repair: Exploring emotional intelligence using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale. In J. W. Pennebaker (Ed.), Emotion, Disclosure, and Health (p. 125–154). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Schäfer, J. Ö., Naumann, E., Holmes, E. A., Tuschen-Caffier, B., & Samson, A. C. (2017). Emotion regulation strategies in depressive and anxiety symptoms in youth: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46(2), 261-276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0585-0
Schwartz-Mette, R. A., Lawrence, H. R., Shankman, J., Fearey, E., & Harrington, R. (2021). Intrapersonal emotion regulation difficulties and maladaptive interpersonal behavior in adolescence. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 49(6), 749–761. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-020-00739-z
Silk, J. S., Forbes, E. E., Whalen, D. J., Jakubcak, J. L., Thompson, W. K., Ryan, N. D., Axelson, A.A., Birmaher, B., & Dahl, R. E. (2011). Daily emotional dynamics in depressed youth: A cell phone ecological momentary assessment study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 110 (2), 241-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.10.007
Skripkauskaite, S., Hawk, S. T., Branje, S. J. T., Koot, H. M., van Lier, P. A. C., & Meeus, W. (2015). Reactive and proactive aggression: Differential links with emotion regulation difficulties, maternal criticism in adolescence. Aggressive Behavior, 41(3), 214–226. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21583
Theurel, A., & Gentaz, E. (2018). The regulation of emotions in adolescents: Age differences and emotion-specific patterns. PLOS ONE, 13(6), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195501
Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition. Monographs of The Society for Research in Child Development, 25-52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01276.x
United Nations Population Fund (n.d.). World population dashboard Kenya. https://www.unfpa.org/data/world-population/KE
Urry, H. L., & Gross, J. J. (2010). Emotion regulation in older age. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(6), 352-357. https://doi.org/10.21767%2F2471-9854.100040
van Roekel, E., Bennik, E. C., Bastiaansen, J. A., Verhagen, M., Ormel, J., Engels, R. C., & Oldehinkel, A. J. (2016). Depressive symptoms and the experience of pleasure in daily life: An exploration of associations in early and late adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(5), 999-1009. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0090-z
Venturo-Conerly, K. E., Osborn, T. L., Alemu, R., Roe, E., Rodriguez, M., Gan, J., Arango, S., Wasil, A., Wasanga, C., & Weisz, J. R. (2022). Single-session interventions for adolescent anxiety and depression symptoms in Kenya: A cluster-randomized controlled trial. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 151, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2022.104040
World Health Organization (2021, November 17). Mental Health of Adolescents. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health
World Health Organization (2021, March 31). Depression. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression
Zafar, H., Debowska, A., & Boduszek, D. (2021). Emotion regulation difficulties and psychopathology among Pakistani adolescents. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 26(1), 121–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104520969765
Zeman, J., Cassano, M., Perry-Parrish, C., & Stegall, S. (2006). Emotion regulation in children and adolescents. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 27(2), 155-168. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004703-200604000-00014
Zimmer‐Gembeck, M. J., & Skinner, E. A. (2016). The development of coping: Implications for psychopathology and resilience. In D. Cicchetti (Ed.), Developmental Psychopathology: Risk, Resilience, and Intervention (Volume 4, pp. 485-545). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy410
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2023 Bernice Nderitu, Michael Kihara, Dana Basnight-Brown
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
